Amazon operates 20+ marketplaces worldwide, generating over $575 billion in gross merchandise volume annually. For established FBA sellers, international expansion represents the most accessible growth lever available—your existing catalog reaches new buyers without foreign entity registration, warehouse leases, or multilingual support teams.

Yet only 28% of Amazon sellers operate across multiple countries, leaving substantial market share available to sellers who execute international expansion correctly.

The barrier to international commerce has collapsed. Currency conversion, customs documentation, cross-border shipping infrastructure, and localized customer service—operations that previously required six-figure investments—now operate through Seller Central's unified interface.

A seller managing $50,000 monthly in US sales can launch in Germany, Japan, or the UAE within 30-45 days, often with the same supplier relationships and product catalog already generating domestic revenue.

This guide provides the operational framework for scaling from single-country operations to profitable international presence. We'll cover marketplace selection criteria, VAT compliance requirements, Pan-European FBA logistics, market-specific listing optimization, and the regulatory frameworks that determine product eligibility across different regions.

Understanding Amazon Global Selling

Amazon Global Selling enables registered sellers to establish storefronts across 20 international marketplaces spanning North America (US, Canada, Mexico), Europe (UK, Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Belgium, Turkey), Asia-Pacific (Japan, Australia, Singapore, India), Middle East (UAE, Saudi Arabia, Egypt), and South America (Brazil).

The program operates through unified seller accounts—your existing Seller Central credentials extend across all marketplaces with marketplace-specific configurations for language, currency, tax settings, and regulatory compliance.

The infrastructure consists of three integrated components. First, marketplace registration establishes your legal seller presence in target countries, requiring business verification, bank account setup for local currency remittance, and tax identification numbers where applicable.

Second, fulfillment network access connects your inventory to Amazon's international warehouse systems through FBA or approved third-party logistics providers. Third, integrated payment processing handles automatic currency conversion, cross-border fund transfers, and consolidated financial reporting across all active marketplaces.

Account requirements vary substantially by region. European marketplaces operate under EU Commercial Code, requiring VAT registration once you establish inventory presence or exceed country-specific distance selling thresholds—£85,000 in the UK, €10,000 for cross-border EU sales.

You'll need an EORI (Economic Operators Registration and Identification) number for customs clearance on goods entering the EU. Japan requires JCT (Japan Consumption Tax) registration and a local tax agent if you lack a Japanese business entity.

North American marketplaces function under USMCA trade agreements, offering simplified customs procedures for goods manufactured in member countries, though Canadian GST/HST and Mexican IVA registration become necessary at specific revenue thresholds.

Marketplace-specific regulations directly impact product eligibility and operational costs. Germany's VerpackG (Packaging Act) requires registration with LUCID and participation in a dual-system recycling program before your first product ships—non-compliance results in immediate listing suppression.

Japan enforces PSE (Product Safety Electrical Appliance) and PSC (Product Safety Consumer Products) certifications for specific categories, requiring third-party testing documentation. The UAE mandates ECAS (Emirates Conformity Assessment Scheme) approval for electronics, cosmetics, and children's products.

France recently implemented EPR (Extended Producer Responsibility) regulations covering textiles, furniture, and electronics. These frameworks determine which SKUs qualify for international sales and what compliance costs you'll absorb.

Market selection determines expansion ROI more than any other strategic decision. Evaluate four primary criteria: validated product demand (search volume data from marketplace-specific keyword tools), competitive intensity (seller count, pricing distribution, review concentration), regulatory complexity (category-specific restrictions, safety certifications, documentation requirements), and total fulfillment costs (inbound freight, FBA fees, customs duties, VAT).

Germany's €99 billion e-commerce market shows consistently strong demand for home organization products, automotive accessories, and consumer electronics. However, it faces intense competition from established European sellers with localized brands and German-language customer service teams.

Japan's $125 billion marketplace prioritizes brand reputation and quality perception over price optimization—conversion rates correlate more strongly with review ratings and product presentation than competitive pricing.

The UK offers English-language advantages eliminating translation costs but requires customs documentation for every shipment post-Brexit. This adds 3-5 days to delivery timelines and £8-15 in clearance fees per shipment.

Consumer behavior patterns shape your entire market approach. US buyers prioritize two-day Prime delivery and flexible return policies, tolerating minimal product descriptions if images and reviews provide sufficient information.

German customers demand comprehensive technical specifications, detailed material composition, and precise dimensional data—listings under 200 words underperform by 35-40% compared to detailed descriptions.

Japanese consumers evaluate packaging quality as product quality proxy, with presentation influencing initial reviews and return rates. French buyers show high price sensitivity but strong loyalty once satisfied, making customer retention strategies particularly effective.

These preferences inform listing optimization, advertising budget allocation, and customer service protocols.

Tax compliance represents the steepest learning curve in international expansion. VAT obligations trigger when storage locations or sales volumes exceed jurisdiction-specific thresholds.

Amazon's European Fulfillment Network (EFN) stores your inventory in one country (typically Poland or Czech Republic for cost efficiency) while serving the entire EU. This creates single-country VAT obligations but incurs higher per-unit fulfillment fees (€2-4 additional per shipment) and extended delivery times.

Pan-European FBA distributes inventory across 5-7 fulfillment centers based on demand algorithms, requiring VAT registration in all storage countries (Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Poland, Czech Republic, UK). However, it optimizes delivery speeds to 1-2 days and reduces per-unit fulfillment costs by 25-35%.

VAT rates vary by country and product category: 20% standard rate in the UK with reduced 5% rate for children's car seats, 19% in Germany with 7% for books and food, 10% in Japan for most consumer goods.

Reverse-charge mechanisms apply to B2B sales where VAT registration differs between buyer and seller. Input VAT recovery on business expenses requires proper documentation and quarterly filings in most jurisdictions.

Import duties operate separately from VAT. Harmonized System (HS) codes determine duty rates—silk scarves face 8.5% duty entering the EU, cotton scarves face 12%, synthetic scarves face 10%.

Incorrect classification causes shipment delays (7-14 days), additional fees ($50-150 per correction), or rejected imports requiring return shipping at seller expense. Certificates of origin impact duty rates under preferential trade agreements—goods manufactured in Vietnam enter the EU duty-free under EVFTA provisions, while identical products from China face full duty rates.

Leveraging Fulfillment by Amazon (FBA) for Global Sales

Amazon's international FBA network provides the infrastructure backbone for cross-border expansion. Rather than establishing warehouse relationships in each target country, you ship consolidated inventory to Amazon's fulfillment centers and leverage their logistics network for last-mile delivery.

Three fulfillment models address different operational priorities and margin structures.

North American Unified Account integrates US, Canada, and Mexico under single seller credentials. Inventory stored in US fulfillment centers ships to Canadian and Mexican customers through cross-border fulfillment, eliminating the need for separate inventory positions in each country.

However, delivery times extend to 5-8 days for cross-border orders, and customers pay import fees at checkout. Establishing dedicated inventory in Canadian fulfillment centers (typically Vancouver or Toronto) reduces delivery times to 2-3 days and eliminates customer-facing import fees, but requires separate inbound shipments and minimum inventory quantities (typically 200+ units per SKU to justify transportation costs).

European Fulfillment Network (EFN) centralizes inventory in one EU country while serving all European marketplaces. You maintain single-country VAT registration (typically Poland or Czech Republic for lowest storage fees at €0.35-0.45 per cubic foot monthly) while selling across Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and other EU markets.

Per-unit fulfillment fees increase €2-4 for cross-border shipments, and delivery times extend to 4-7 days. This model suits sellers testing European demand with limited SKU counts (under 15 products) or low monthly unit volumes (under 500 units) where VAT registration costs in multiple countries exceed the increased fulfillment fees.

Pan-European FBA (Pan-EU) distributes inventory across Amazon's European fulfillment network based on predictive algorithms analyzing search patterns, purchase behavior, and regional demand. Your products automatically position in Germany, France, Italy, Spain, Poland, Czech Republic, and UK fulfillment centers.

This optimization reduces average delivery time to 1-2 days, lowers per-unit fulfillment costs by 25-35% compared to EFN, and increases Prime badge eligibility (products in local fulfillment centers qualify for marketplace-specific Prime programs). The tradeoff: VAT registration requirements in all inventory storage countries.

Registration costs typically run €800-1,200 per country (one-time) plus €150-300 monthly for accounting services handling VAT returns. Break-even analysis shows Pan-EU becomes cost-effective at approximately 800+ monthly units across European marketplaces or when fulfillment fee savings exceed €2,000 monthly.

Inventory allocation under Pan-EU operates through Amazon's algorithms—you don't control which fulfillment centers receive your products. Send inventory to Amazon's designated receiving centers (typically Poland or Czech Republic), and their system redistributes based on demand forecasting.

Rebalancing occurs automatically, but understanding the mechanism helps optimize inventory planning. Amazon analyzes trailing 90-day sales velocity by marketplace, regional search trends, and seasonal patterns to predict where demand will materialize. Products showing strong German sales history position heavily in German fulfillment centers, while new ASINs without sales patterns distribute more evenly.

Inbound shipping logistics require different approaches by region. For European operations, most US-based sellers use ocean freight to Hamburg or Rotterdam (30-35 days transit, $1,800-2,400 per 20-foot container), followed by truck delivery to Amazon fulfillment centers (2-3 days, included in freight forwarder quotes).

Air freight reduces timeline to 7-10 days but increases costs to $4.50-6.50 per kilogram, making it viable only for lightweight, high-margin products or emergency inventory replenishment. Door-to-door freight forwarders manage customs clearance, EORI documentation, and final delivery—expect €200-350 in handling fees plus duties and VAT.

Japan FBA operates through separate inventory pools with no cross-marketplace fulfillment. Products sold on Amazon Japan must ship directly to Japanese fulfillment centers (Tokyo, Osaka, or Sapporo regions).

Ocean freight from China to Tokyo runs 5-7 days at $800-1,100 per cubic meter. Import regulations require Japanese-language labeling for most categories, PSE certification for electrical products, and food safety documentation for consumables—compliance costs range $400-800 per product depending on category complexity.

Optimizing Product Listings for International Buyers

Listing optimization strategies that drive US conversions often fail in international markets due to linguistic nuances, cultural preferences, and marketplace-specific algorithms. Direct translation produces grammatically correct but contextually awkward content that signals foreign seller presence and reduces buyer confidence.

Native speakers identify your listing as machine-translated within 3-5 seconds based on unnatural phrasing patterns. German requires formal product descriptions using "Sie" rather than informal "du," but this formality feels outdated for lifestyle products targeting younger demographics. Japanese listings demand different politeness levels (keigo) depending on product category and price point.

Professional translation services specializing in e-commerce content run $0.12-0.18 per word for European languages, $0.18-0.25 per word for Japanese. A standard product listing (title, bullet points, description totaling 400 words) costs $50-100 per language for quality translation including localization adjustments.

Many sellers find this expense prohibitive across multiple SKUs. An alternative approach: prioritize your top 20% revenue-generating ASINs for professional translation while using marketplace-specific keyword research to optimize titles and bullet points for remaining catalog items, leaving descriptions in English for European markets where English comprehension rates exceed 65% among online shoppers.

Keyword research requires marketplace-specific tools because search behavior varies dramatically by country. "Yoga mat" generates 45,000 monthly US searches, but German buyers search "Yogamatte" (89,000 monthly searches), "Gymnastikmatte" (12,000 searches), and "Fitnessmatte" (8,100 searches). Optimizing only for direct translations misses 60% of relevant search traffic.

Tools like Helium 10's international databases, Jungle Scout's marketplace-specific keyword tools, or native Amazon Brand Analytics (available in each marketplace's Seller Central) provide localized search volume data. Focus on keywords generating 500+ monthly searches with under 500 competing listings for optimal ranking opportunities.

Title structure conventions differ by marketplace. US titles prioritize front-loaded keywords in the first 80 characters: "Yoga Mat Non-Slip Exercise Fitness Mat with Carrying Strap" outperforms feature-heavy titles.

German buyers expect technical precision: "Yogamatte Rutschfest 183cm x 61cm x 6mm TPE Material Tragegurt Fitnessmatte" performs better because it specifies exact dimensions and material composition. Japanese titles incorporate katakana brand names and English keywords: "ヨガマット 滑り止め Yoga Mat 183×61cm 厚さ6mm" blends Japanese and English for maximum search visibility.

Image requirements remain consistent globally (minimum 1000x1000 pixels, white background for main image), but effective imagery varies by cultural context. US listings perform well with lifestyle images showing products in use, emphasizing aspirational scenarios.

German buyers respond better to technical diagrams, dimension callouts, and material composition graphics—informational content outweighs emotional appeal. Japanese markets prioritize packaging aesthetics and detail shots showing craftsmanship and quality indicators. Middle Eastern marketplaces require cultural sensitivity in lifestyle imagery, avoiding images that might conflict with local customs.

A/B testing reveals significant performance variations. One seller's kitchen storage containers showed 23% conversion rate improvement in Germany after replacing lifestyle images with technical diagrams showing capacity measurements and stacking configurations, while the same change reduced US conversions by 8%.

Marketing Strategies for Global Expansion

Amazon PPC operates independently in each marketplace with separate campaign structures, budgets, and performance metrics. Your US campaigns don't extend to international markets—you build new campaigns from zero impression history.

This reset creates opportunity. Competitors dominating US search results often haven't established international PPC presence, leaving lower CPC rates and reduced competition for top placements. Average CPC in US home & kitchen categories runs $0.85-1.20, while Germany averages €0.45-0.70 for equivalent keywords, and Japan averages ¥35-60 ($0.25-0.45).

Campaign strategy requires marketplace-specific adjustments. Automatic campaigns in new markets run 7-14 days longer than US launches because Amazon's algorithm needs more time to establish relevance with limited sales history.

Budget €15-25 daily for automatic campaigns during the learning phase. Manual campaigns launch after harvesting converting keywords from automatic campaign search term reports—typically after 200+ clicks or 30+ orders, whichever comes first.

Keyword match types perform differently internationally. Broad match in European markets triggers on linguistic variants and compound words (German's characteristic noun combinations), generating more irrelevant traffic than US broad match campaigns. Start with phrase match and exact match, expanding to broad match modifier only after validating core keyword performance.

Japanese campaigns require separate katakana, hiragana, and kanji keyword variations—Amazon's algorithm doesn't consolidate these as equivalent terms. "ヨガマット" (katakana) and "ヨガまっと" (hiragana) function as distinct keywords requiring separate bids despite identical meaning.

Bidding strategies account for conversion rate differences during market entry. US products with established review profiles convert at 12-15% on average, but identical products entering new markets with zero reviews convert at 3-6% initially.

This dynamic requires higher ACoS tolerance (35-50%) during the first 60-90 days while accumulating initial reviews and sales history. CPC bids should target page-one placement (typically top 20% of suggested bid range) despite temporary unprofitability—early visibility compounds through organic ranking improvements once sales velocity establishes.

Promotional strategies leverage marketplace-specific shopping behaviors. Lightning Deals in Japan generate 3-4x normal daily sales velocity but require 20%+ discount depth and minimum 50-unit inventory commitment. German shoppers respond strongly to percentage-off coupons (15-20% clip rates) but show lower response to fixed-amount discounts.

UK buyers actively search "Prime Day," "Black Friday," and "Boxing Day" deals, making event-aligned promotions essential. Middle Eastern markets observe different discount events, particularly Ramadan, Eid al-Fitr, and National Day celebrations specific to each country.

External traffic sources require localized approaches. US sellers drive Amazon traffic through Facebook ads, Google Shopping campaigns, and influencer partnerships. European markets show stronger Pinterest engagement for home goods and fashion, while LINE dominates Japanese social commerce.

Influencer rates vary dramatically: US micro-influencers (10K-50K followers) charge $150-400 per post, Japanese influencers charge ¥80,000-150,000 ($600-1,100) for equivalent reach, reflecting higher production quality expectations and longer content lifespan in Japanese social media.

Overcoming Challenges in Global E-commerce

International expansion introduces operational complexity absent from domestic operations. The most common failure points relate to inventory forecasting, customer service, returns management, and regulatory compliance.

Inventory planning across multiple regions strains working capital and creates stranded inventory risk. A product selling 300 units monthly in the US might move 40 units in Germany, 25 in Japan, and 15 in the UK during initial market entry.

Minimum manufacturer order quantities (MOQs) often exceed 6-12 months of projected international demand, forcing simultaneous inventory deployment across all markets or selective market entry based on MOQ constraints. Sellers with $200K annual US revenue typically need $40K-60K additional working capital to properly stock three international markets with 90-day inventory coverage.

Currency fluctuation impacts margin calculation. A product with 35% gross margin at $1.18/EUR exchange rate drops to 28% margin if the euro weakens to $1.08/EUR—a 20% margin compression from currency movement alone.

Hedging strategies through forward contracts (locking exchange rates 3-6 months forward) cost 0.5-1.2% of transaction value but eliminate this volatility. Most sellers under $500K annual international revenue accept currency risk rather than paying hedging costs, while larger operations benefit from rate certainty.

Customer service expectations vary by market, but response time requirements remain consistent: Amazon mandates sub-24-hour response times globally for account health. German customers write longer, more detailed inquiry messages expecting comprehensive technical responses. Japanese buyers rarely complain directly but leave negative reviews if issues aren't proactively resolved.

Most sellers use marketplace-specific response templates in local languages for common scenarios (shipping inquiries, return requests, product questions), escalating complex issues to translation services (cost: $8-15 per message for real-time translation). Some automate initial responses through Amazon's automated messaging system, which provides adequate machine translation for routine inquiries.

Return rates increase 2-4 percentage points in international markets during the first 90 days as you optimize sizing information, product descriptions, and image accuracy for local buyer expectations. European markets enforce stricter consumer protection laws, including mandatory 14-day return windows for distance sales—significantly longer than Amazon's US return policy.

Products returned from international customers often can't economically return to your primary marketplace. A return from Germany to US FBA inventory costs €25-35 in shipping, making products under €40 sale price financially unviable to retrieve. Most sellers authorize disposal or liquidation for low-value international returns, treating them as cost of market entry.

Regulatory changes require ongoing monitoring. Germany's VerpackG initially caught many sellers off-guard with immediate listing suppression for non-compliance. France's AGEC law (Anti-Waste for a Circular Economy) introduced new EPR requirements in 2022 affecting textiles and electronics.

The UK implemented plastic packaging tax in April 2022, charging £200 per ton on packaging containing less than 30% recycled content. Staying current requires monitoring Amazon Seller Central news section for each active marketplace and subscribing to region-specific seller communities where regulatory changes circulate quickly.

Success Stories: Learning from Top Global Sellers

Analyzing successful international expansion reveals patterns worth replicating. Consider three seller profiles operating at different scales with distinct strategies.

Case Study: Home Goods Brand Expansion—A US-based seller generating $2.3M annually in kitchen organization products launched Pan-EU operations in 2021. Rather than simultaneously entering all European markets, they prioritized Germany based on keyword search volume analysis showing 3.2x higher monthly searches for their primary product categories compared to France or Italy.

Initial investment: €38,000 covering VAT registration across seven countries (€8,400), inventory for Pan-EU distribution (€24,000 for 4,500 units across 12 SKUs), and professional German translation/optimization (€1,200). First-year European revenue reached €420,000 with 31% gross margin after absorbing higher fulfillment costs and VAT obligations.

Their key insight: Concentrated marketing spend in the dominant market (Germany represented 68% of European revenue) rather than equal budget distribution across all markets. This approach built critical mass faster, generating review velocity that improved organic ranking and reduced ACoS from initial 48% to sustainable 22% by month nine.

Case Study: Electronics Accessories in Japan—A seller specializing in phone accessories expanded to Japan after identifying search demand through marketplace research. Japan represented their third international market after Canada and Mexico.

Primary challenges involved PSE certification ($1,200 per product line for electrical safety testing) and Japanese packaging expectations requiring custom box inserts and instruction manuals. Total pre-launch investment: $18,500 including compliance costs, inventory, and marketplace setup.

The turning point came from partnering with a Japanese virtual assistant ($800 monthly) who provided customer service, optimized listings based on Japanese search behavior, and monitored competitor pricing. This local market expertise accelerated their learning curve—they reached profitability in month five versus the typical 7-9 month timeline for Western sellers entering Japan independently.

Year-one Japanese revenue: $340,000 at 38% gross margin, with customer lifetime value 2.1x higher than US customers due to lower return rates and higher repeat purchase frequency.

Case Study: Rapid Market Testing Approach—A seller with limited working capital ($15,000 available for international expansion) used EFN to test European markets before committing to Pan-EU. They selected their top five US performers, shipped 120 units per SKU to Polish fulfillment center, and activated listings across Germany, France, Italy, Spain, and UK simultaneously.

Initial 90-day results showed 73% of sales concentrated in Germany and UK, with France, Italy, and Spain combining for just 27% despite equal visibility. Based on this data, they suspended listings in underperforming markets, consolidated remaining inventory, and reinvested savings into Pan-EU enrollment focused on Germany and UK.

This test-and-iterate approach cost €4,800 in higher EFN fulfillment fees over three months (versus Pan-EU rates) but saved €9,600 in VAT registration and ongoing compliance costs for markets showing weak product-market fit. They achieved profitability in month four rather than absorbing 6-8 months of losses across all markets simultaneously.

Tools and Resources for Amazon Global Sellers

Operational efficiency in international selling depends on platform integrations, data analytics tools, and service providers handling specialized compliance requirements.

Multi-Marketplace Management Platforms consolidate operations across regions. Seller Central's native interface requires switching between marketplace-specific accounts—tedious when managing 5+ active countries. Third-party tools provide unified dashboards showing inventory levels, sales performance, and advertising metrics across all marketplaces simultaneously.

SellerBoard ($19-79 monthly depending on revenue) offers profit analytics by marketplace, factoring in VAT, currency conversion, and marketplace-specific fee structures. Helium 10 ($97-397 monthly) provides international keyword research, listing optimization, and inventory management across North American, European, and Japanese marketplaces. Jungle Scout ($49-399 monthly) includes opportunity finder tools that identify high-demand, low-competition products in specific international markets.

VAT Compliance Services range from DIY software solutions to full-service accounting firms. Avalara ($50-300 monthly plus per-transaction fees) automates VAT calculation and filing for European operations, integrating directly with Seller Central to pull transaction data. Full-service providers like Taxually or VAT IT handle registration, quarterly filings, and correspondence with tax authorities at €150-300 monthly per country.

The economic breakpoint: DIY software becomes cost-effective above €8,000 monthly European revenue, while full-service providers make sense above €25,000 monthly when compliance complexity and audit risk justify premium service.

International Freight Forwarders specializing in Amazon FBA manage inbound logistics, customs clearance, and delivery to fulfillment centers. Flexport, Freightos, and Shippo provide instant quotes and booking for ocean and air freight with embedded Amazon FBA delivery. Expect door-to-door ocean freight rates of $1,800-2,400 per 20-foot container from China to European fulfillment centers, including customs clearance and final delivery.

Freight forwarders handle HS code classification, commercial invoice preparation, and EORI documentation—services worth their 12-15% markup over carrier-direct rates when factoring in time savings and error reduction.

Translation and Localization Services determine whether international listings convert at US-equivalent rates or underperform due to awkward phrasing. Amazon's automatic translation feature provides functional but obviously non-native content. Services like Translated.com, Smartling, or specialized e-commerce agencies (CEEK Marketing, Nuoptima) deliver marketplace-optimized content at $0.12-0.25 per word.

For budget-conscious approaches: Use professional translation for titles and bullet points (highest conversion impact), Amazon's automatic translation for descriptions, and A+ Content image-heavy modules requiring minimal text.

Market Research Platforms identify expansion opportunities before committing capital. Jungle Scout's global database shows estimated monthly revenue for products in any marketplace, competitive intensity metrics, and trend analysis. Helium 10's Black Box tool filters products by marketplace-specific criteria (search volume, review count, price range, seller count).

Amazon's own Brand Analytics (accessible through Seller Central in each marketplace) provides search frequency rank data showing exact keyword search volume—your most accurate demand validation tool, though requiring active seller account in target marketplace to access.

Customer Service Solutions bridge language gaps without hiring multilingual staff. Amazon's Buyer-Seller Messaging system includes basic auto-translation for common inquiries. For complex issues, services like Multilingual Connections ($12-18 per translated message) or LanguageLine ($1.25-1.95 per minute for phone interpretation) provide professional translation within 2-4 hours.

Some sellers hire marketplace-specific virtual assistants through platforms like OnlineJobs.ph (Filipino VAs with Japanese language skills) or Upwork (European language specialists) at $8-15 hourly for dedicated customer service coverage during local business hours.

The infrastructure for profitable international expansion exists—success comes from methodical market selection, realistic timeline expectations, and systematic optimization based on marketplace-specific data rather than assuming US strategies translate directly.